Self-determination is defined as "the ability to identify and achieve goals based on a foundation of knowing and valuing oneself" (Field & Hoffman, 1994, p. 164). Self-determination, and the related concept of self-advocacy, have long been promoted by policymakers in the U.S. Department of Education, researchers, persons with disabilities, and advocates (Ward & Kohler, 1996). The Individuals With Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) Amendments of 1997 (Public Law 105-17), for example, require that children and youth with disabilities ages 14 and above be invited to participate in any meetings where their individualized education programs (IEPs) are discussed and that decisions be based on the student's interests and preferences (-34 C.F.R. [section] 300.344 (b) (1)). Similar legislation also encourages the self-determination of adults with disabilities. For example, the Amendments to the Rehabilitation Act of 1992 (Public Law 102-569) require that adults with disabilities be involved in the development of their individualized written rehabilitation plans. In 1998, further revisions to this Act (The Rehabilitation Act Amendments of 1998, Title IV of Public Law 105-220) strengthened the requirement for informed choice for eligible individuals. The value of self-determination is confirmed by research studies that have demonstrated that students with a wide range of levels and types of disabilities can be taught an array of self-determination and self-advocacy skills (Algozzine, Browder, Karvonen, Test, & Wood, 2001). Among these skills are choice making, goal setting/attainment, problem-solving, self-regulation, participation in the IEP process, and self-awareness (Agran, Blanchard, Wehmeyer, & Hughes, 2001; Allen, Smith, Test, Flowers, & Wood, 2001; Hughes, 1996; Kennedy & Hating, 1993; Snyder & Shapiro, 1997; Van Reusen & Bos, 1990). Theoretically, self-determination and self-advocacy skills enhance the capability of students with disabilities to assume responsibility for their own lives and transition effectively from the structure of the school environment to the larger community environment (Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 1997, 1998). In practice, many studies have demonstrated the value of teaching from any one of several self-determination curricula (Field, Martin, Miller, Ward, & Wehmeyer, 1998; Halpern et al., 1997; McGahee, Mason, Wallace, & Jones, 2001; Test, Karvonen, Wood, Browder, & Algozzine, 2000). These studies show that students can learn self-determination skills and apply them in school environments. However, most studies have addressed the immediate impact of these skills for specific circumstances, and relatively little research has been conducted to document the longitudinal impact or long-term efficacy of instruction in these areas.
